2002). 1999). The brainstem is also an important area of the brain for energy homeostasis. Meals eaten with spouses and family were larger and eaten faster than those with other companions, while meals eaten with friends were also larger but of longer duration.
1985; Moran & Schwartz 1994), thus playing a role in co‐ordinating digestion. It receives signals from the gut via the vagus nerve (Sawchenko 1983) regarding gastric volume and information about the presence of nutrients in the gut via signals from CCK (Schwartz et al. The author suggested that, in general, the social interaction of eating with others prolongs meal times, thus increasing energy intake. This might be expected to lead to impaired satiety although, because there are many other factors involved in satiety‐signalling pathways, this cannot be assumed. Although it has been suggested that low‐GI foods are more satiating than high‐GI foods, current evidence shows that, when other factors such as fibre content are controlled, GI does not have a significant effect on satiety. GLP‐1 can be measured from blood samples and is seen to rise for two hours after a meal, compared with the fasting level (Orskov & Holst 1987). Many studies use a preload design, which is discussed in the following section. 1989). 1998). Because of potential confounding by behavioural and environmental factors on satiety and energy intake, studies are often conducted in a laboratory environment. Greene et al.
2004), therefore having a dual effect of stimulating feeding while inhibiting pathways that reduce feeding. The chain length of fatty acids in a triaclyglyceride (fat) affects how they are absorbed and processed by the body (French 2004), and this and their degree of unsaturation (e.g. (2006) also looked at the satiating effects of beef and fish and found a non‐significant increase in satiety and a significant decrease in energy intake at a subsequent meal after the fish compared with the beef (Borzoei et al. (2009) found that watching television while eating reduced the vividness of the memory of the meal, compared with a eating a meal without distraction. – are still found in Asia. A number of studies have shown that the greater the choice of foods offered at a single eating occasion, the more people will eat (see Rolls 1984). These include the variety of foods offered, the dietary restraint (tendency to consciously restrict the amount of food eaten) of subjects or the appeal and palatability of the food (Mattes et al. 2002, 2004a, 2004b; Diliberti et al. 2005). 2003; Otsuka et al. In these studies, it is important to consider the kinds of foods offered and the way these are presented to subjects in the laboratory, as this potentially affects how much will be consumed. The amount of fibre was important, and larger doses were more effective at promoting satiety and reducing energy intake. The ability to block these actions was exploited by using the cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1) inverse agonist known as Rimonabant (Sanofi‐Aventis). 1990). When food or drink reaches the stomach, nerves communicate an increase in gastric volume to the brain (Ritter 2004). 6–12 hours per test condition). In the context of the rising prevalence of obesity, it is important to consider the impact of satiation and satiety on energy balance, and whether they can be enhanced in order to facilitate the reduction of energy intake, aiding weight control. Previous sections in this chapter have outlined genetic and physiological differences that may affect satiation and satiety and thus bodyweight.
2005) and in humans (Batterham et al. The mania of the source novels' fandom has quieted, and we aren't as concerned with some of the trilogy's timelier themes as we once were. 2005). Overall, evidence suggests that intense sweeteners do not increase or decrease satiety, although the reduction in energy intake associated with their use is not compensated for by a subsequent increase in energy intake. The rate at which sugars (mono and disaccharides) and starches are digested, absorbed and metabolised are different because the longer chain length of starches increases the time needed for digestion compared with sugars. 2001). 2006). However, they emphasised that the consumption patterns of caloric soft drinks (i.e. The fact that people eat more when given larger portion sizes also indicates that, for many people, the presence of food acts as a stimulus for (continued) consumption and that, within the time frame of a meal, this positive stimulation can be more powerful than the physiological signals that inhibit eating. Learn about our remote access options. (1992) measured the relative satiating effects of protein in beef, chicken and fish over a period of three hours. Exercise‐induced suppression of appetite: effects on food intake and implications for energy balance, Effects of short‐term exercise on appetite response in unrestrained females, Satiating efficiency and a strategy for conducting food loading experiments, Universal eating monitor for continuous recording of solid and liquid consumption in man, Cholecystokinin reduces food intake in man, Acute effects of exercise on food intake in obese and non‐obese women, Impact of sleep and sleep loss on glucose homeostasis and appetite regulation, The effects of 2‐week ingestion of (‐‐)‐hydroxycitrate and (‐‐)‐hydroxycitrate combined with medium‐chain triglycerides on satiety, fat oxidation, energy expenditure and body weight, Combined effects of energy density and portion size on energy intake in women, Hypothalamic CART is a new anorectic peptide regulated by leptin, Acheiving ‘proper’ satiety in different social contexts – qualitative interpretations from a cross‐disciplinary project sociomæt, Value of VLCD supplementation with medium chain triglycerides, Caudal hindbrain participation in the suppression of feeding by central and peripheral bombesin, Satiating effects of proteins in healthy subjects: a comparison of egg albumen, casein, gelatin, soy protein, pea protein and wheat gluten, Varying the protein source in mixed meal modifies glucose, insulin and glucagon kinetics in healthy men, has weak effects on subjective satiety and fails to affect food intake, Structural diversity of receptors for neuropeptide Y, peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide, Dietary and appetite control in obese subjects: weak effects on satiation and satiety, The degree of saturation of fatty acids influences post ingestive satiety, Oxyntomodulin‐like immunoreactivity: diurnal profile of a new potential enterogastrone, Reducing the energy density of an entrée decreases children's energy intake at lunch, Reductions in entrée energy density increases children's vegetable intake and reduce energy intake, Reducing the energy density of multiple meals decreases the energy intake of preschool age children, Reductions in dietary energy density are associated with weight loss in overweight and obese participants in the PREMIER trial, Ghrelin and glucagon‐like peptide 1 concentrations, 24‐h satiety, and energy and substrate metabolism during a high‐protein diet and measured in a respiration chamber, Fatty acid oxidation and control of food intake, Effect of breakfast cereals on short‐term food intake, Phenotypic effects of leptin replacement on morbid obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypogonadism and behaviour in leptin deficient adults, Cholecystokinin bioactivity in human plasma. CART is co‐expressed with POMC in the hypothalamus. Ghrelin levels are significantly lower in obese than in lean subjects (English et al. Generally, those studies that used high doses of fibre (e.g. (2005). Overall, it is emerging that variations in eating behaviour may be particularly important in determining the risk of obesity. Overall, there is some evidence that distractions when eating (commonly television) can make people less sensitive to internal appetite controls and lead to increased energy intake.